The Great War (1914-1918) in real time

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Day 1407 of the Great War, June 14th 1918

YouTube (The French Counter Attack At Matz)



Western Front

British successful midnight attack north of Bethune along La Bassee Canal.

General Guillaumont appointed Military Governor of Paris.

Caucasus campaign: Turks Occupy Tabriz Again

Russia’s exit from the war meant that the Turks could not only assert themselves in Russia’s former provinces in the Caucasus, but in northwestern Persia [Iran] as well. On June 14, two thousand Turkish soldiers triumphantly entered Tabriz, following after a smaller contingent which had arrived a week before. This was the first time the Turks had been in the city since January 1915, when the aftermath of their defeat at Sarikamish had forced them to leave the area after less than a month. The Turkish army deliberately comported themselves well, and left the harassing of the local Armenian population to Azeri refugees from the violence in Baku. French missionary Father Franssen recalled that:

A letter signed by a so-called Revenge Committee, primarily made up of Muslims who had come from the Caucasus, were sent to the city’s Armenian notables; it demanded that they remit 10,000 tomans to the aforementioned committee, adding that, if they did not, the Bishop and the notables would be held responsible for everything that happened.

A few Armenians were attacked and killed the next day, but neither the Turkish Army nor the local population joined in. Although tensions remained high for the rest of the summer, and the Turks took hostages, the Turks were ultimately unwilling to carry out atrocities in a major Persian city against the wishes of the Persian government; the same was sadly not true elsewhere in northwestern Persia.

Arab Revolt

Turkish repulse British on Hejaz line (Maan region, south of Dead Sea).

Finland

Inadequate majority in Finnish Diet for bill to establish monarchy.

Russia

Protocol of agreement between Don and Kuban Cossack Governments.

Ukraine/Russia relations

Provisional Treaty between Russia and Ukraine.

Aerial operations: Sideshows

Away from the Western Front, the “sideshows“ are anything but to the aviators there. Whilst not exposed to quite the same quantity and quality of opponent, the harsh conditions more than make up for it. None more so than in Mesopotamia where the supply conditions have made operations very difficult as there are no roads, and the heat has slowed things to a standstill in the summer. Most of the aircraft being made from wood are suffering from fatigue due to the heat and humidity, and the supply issues make obtaining spare parts tricky. All this serves to make flying considerably more treacherous.

Despite this, RAF Squadrons have attempted to maintain a watch on enemy forces in the area.

Today John Lacy Warwick and Captain Thomas J Keating from 63 Squadron were killed when their RE8 spiralled out of control shortly after takeoff from their airfield at Samara, seventy miles to the north of Baghdad. Upon impact the aircraft was smashed to pieces and the fuel tank exploded killing the crew in a fireball.

A Court of Enquiry was held by 63 Squadron which came to the conclusion that: ‘The cause of the accident was due to an error of judgement on the part of the pilot, resulting in a spinning nose dive’.

That said there wasn’t much left of the aircraft to carry out any detailed investigation on so it’s impossible to say if this was reasonable or not. As noted above many aircraft were suffering from fatigue and that could easily have contributed to the accident.

Naval operations: ship losses

KRINSJA(Norway) The four-masted barque was shelled and sunk in the Atlantic Ocean 90 nautical miles (170 km) off the coast of Virginia, United States (38°02′N 71°40′W) by SM U-151 ( Kaiserliche Marine). Her crew survived.

HMT PRINCESS OLGA (Royal Navy) The naval trawler struck a mine laid by UC 77 (Johannes Ries) and sank in the English Channel off Le Havre, Seine-Maritime, France. Her crew survived.

SAMOA (Norway) The four-masted barque was shelled and sunk in the Atlantic Ocean 90 nautical miles (170 km) off the coast of Virginia (37°30′N 72°10′W) by SM U-151 ( Kaiserliche Marine). Her crew survived.

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Day 1408 of the Great War, June 15th 1918

Western Front

German air-raid on Paris.

French regain Coeuvres (Villers-Cotterets).

Italian Front: Austria-Hungary attacks across the Piave

Left to their own devices the Austro-Hungarians on the Italian front would prefer to remain on the defensive. Unfortunately the Germans have put Emperor Karl under immense pressure to launch an offensive in support of the Kaiser’s Battle on the Western Front. Since the revelation of his secret negotiations with the Allies, Emperor Karl is in a weak position with regard to the Germans; he has had no option but to accede to their wishes.

Today is the day for the Austro-Hungarian attack. With German help the Austro-Hungarians won a great victory last year at Caporetto, driving the Italians back to the Piave river and bringing them to the brink of collapse. Now though the Austro-Hungarian army is a shadow of its former self. The ramshackle nature of the Austro-Hungarian Empire and the ongoing food crisis means that many of the frontline soldiers are now severely malnourished (while still better fed than many civilians at home).

Emperor Karl and Arz von Straussenburg, the army’s chief of staff, have decided on a two pronged attack. Boroevic‘s men attack across the Piave river while Conrad (formerly Austria-Hungary’s chief of staff) attacks from the Asiago plateau, threatening the Italians’ lines of communication; unlike at Caporetto Boroevic has been ordered to attack on a broad rather than narrow front.

Neither thrust makes the gains that had been hoped for. Italian control of the air has prevented accurate observation of artillery targets, so the Austro-Hungarians have been unable to neutralise the enemy’s batteries and now find themselves faced by determined Italian artillery fire. The Italian infantry have upped their game, switching from a system of static to elastic defence that sees the Austro-Hungarians finding themselves lost in a tangle of trench systems and facing determined counter-attacks.

By the end of the first day Conrad has made some gains and Boroevic has established bridgeheads across the Piave. Italian resistance remains strong however and neither thrust looks like making gains similar to those seen in the German offensives on the Western Front.

Photo: Italian Marines landing from barges to take up positions on the Piave Front



East Africa campaign

Germans retreat in East Africa at Alto Mulocue (225 miles west of Port of Mozambique).

United Kingdom

Formation of Committee of Ministers for Home Affairs under Chairmanship of Sir G. Cave).

Austria-Hungary

Large riots break out in Vienna, Budapest, Prague, and other Austro-Hungarian cities due to food shortages and growing antiwar sentiments.

Aerial operations: Italian assists

Early this morning, Austrian forces started a bombardment of the entire front with Italy and shortly after an infantry assault began. In the British part of the line fog and clouds hampered the RAF in providing assistance, though 34 Squadron RAF was able to call in artillery fire from their RE8s and Camels from 28 Squadron RAF strafed the attackers. This helped limit the Austrian gains in this sector.

On the Italian held part of the front on the Piave, the situation was much worse as the Austrians had crossed the river and begun to establish bridgeheads. News of this arrived in RAF headquarters around 1140 from a patrolling Sopwith Camel. 9 Camels set off over the next hour to bomb the Austrian forces. Following this, the British decided to send all available aircraft from 28, 34, 45 and 66 Squadrons (33 aircraft in total) to help stem the attack as the Austrians had crossed in numbers and had established pontoon bridges across the river.

At the end of the day the Austrians had gained bridgeheads of 15 miles in some places, but there’s no doubt that the early actions of the RAF assisted in reducing early Austrian successes and also disrupted their formations. For example, 66 Squadron RAF destroyed the pontoon bridges. Captain William George Barker described the attack:

“The Austrians had been successful against the Italians. They had succeeded in crossing the Piave opposite the Montello. The Montello, owing to its height, dominated the Venetian plain and under its cover they had thrown two pontoon bridges across the river. The leader selected the bridge farthest upstream and individual bombing commenced from about 50 feet. This bridge was quickly broken in two places and the pontoons, caught by the fast current, were immediately dashed against the lower bridge, carrying it away also. When this attack commenced these bridges were crowded with troops which were attacked with machine-gun fire. Many were seen to be in the water. This done, troops on small islands and in row boats were machine-gunned”.

Later on the day a group of 3000 troops were caught on the riverside embarking into boats and attacked with bombs and machine guns, throwing them into disarray.

The RAF Squadrons claimed to have shot down 4 enemy aircraft on the day as well. Two RAF pilots were wounded by ground fire – 2nd Lieutenant Claude Somerset Style from 28 Squadron and 2nd Lieutenant Robert Benson Carey from 34 Squadron – but otherwise the RAF escaped unscathed.

It’s unlikely that the RAFs intervention was decisive in the final Defeat of the Austrians in this battle, but was no doubt of assistance.

Naval operations: ship losses

Non reported on this day.

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Day 1409 of the Great War, June 16th 1918

Italian Front: Italy strikes back on the Piave river

Austro-Hungarian troops have crossed the Piave, hoping to take Venice and Padua and thereby knock Italy out of the war. However they have been unable to break out of their bridgeheads. Emperor Karl and Arz von Straussenburg, his army’s chief of staff, had hoped to reinvigorate the offensive by transferring men and guns from the Asiago plateau, where Conrad‘s secondary offensive has been halted. Unfortunately this proves impossible: Italian counter-attacks have put Conrad under so much pressure that none of his men can be released.

Now the Italians launch a counter-attack against the Austro-Hungarian bridgeheads. The Austro-Hungarians manage just about to hold on but it is clear to everyone that their offensive has failed: there is no prospect of their capturing Venice or even advancing from the river. The Austro-Hungarian forces on the west bank of the Piave are now fighting for their own survival.

Arab Revolt

British air raid on El Kutrani on Hejaz railway (30 miles east of southern end of Dead Sea).

German Caucasus expedition

Yekaterinenfeld (Tiflis) occupied by Germans.

Bulgaria

Bulgarian Cabinet (M. Radoslavov) resigns; M. Malinov becomes Premier: beginning of the end foreshadowed.

Naval operations: ship losses

MELANIE (United Kingdom) The cargo ship was torpedoed and sunk in the North Sea 5 nautical miles (9.3 km) south east of Whitby, Yorkshire by SM UC-40 ( Kaiserliche Marine) with the loss of five of her crew.

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Day 1410 of the Great War, June 17th 1918

Western Front

Aeroplane raid on Kent; no damage.

Italian Front: Austrians Commit Final Reserves Across the Piave

Two days into the Austrian offensive, Conrad’s efforts on the Asiago had entirely stalled, and the Austrians committed everything they had left to Boroević’s forces on the Piave. The Austrians attacked from their bridgeheads on the morning of the 17th; in some places they advanced nearly two miles, but there was no breakthrough to be had in the Italian lines. That evening, Boroević committed the last fresh divisions he had to the battle; any more reserves would trickle in piecemeal, at best. Boroević hoped that an upside of Conrad’s defeat on the Asiago was that troops could be transferred from that sector; however, fighting remained heavy there, and travel through the mountains and across the pre-war frontier took far too long.

Exacerbating the Austrians’ woes was their supply situation. Shell supply was extremely short, and the batteries were rationing their use from the second day. Getting supplies across the Piave was difficult on the limited number of bridges. On the night of the 17th, the Piave’s waters rose even higher, breaking many of the pontoons the Austrians had managed to erect.

Austria-Hungary

Disturbances and partial strike in Vienna, etc., re: reduced bread ration.

Naval operations: ship losses

PRONZITELNY (Soviet Navy) The Bespokoynyy-class destroyer was scuttled at Novorossiysk.

SM U-64 (Kaiserliche Marine) The SM U-64 submarine was depth charged, shelled and sunk in the Mediterranean Sea (38°07′N 10°27′E) by HMS Lychnis ( Royal Navy) with the loss of 38 of her 43 crew.

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Day 1411 of the Great War, June 18th 1918

Western Front

French repulse German attack on Reims front from Sillery (south of La Pompelle Fort) to Trigny (seven miles west of Reims).

Italian Front

Piave in flood.

Austrian attempts to cross between S. Andrea and Candelu repulsed; Italians recapture Capo Sile.

Arab Revolt

British air raid on Amman.

German Caucasus expedition

German troops land at Poti (Black Sea, 35 miles north of Batum).

East Africa campaign

Germans in retreat reach Mujebu (80 miles north of Quilimane, Portuguese East Africa).

Netherlands

Dutch Government sends a delegation to investigate cause of loss of "KONINGEN REGENTES".

Japan

Arrival of Prince Arthur of Connaught in Japan.

Poland

Publication of Secret Treaty between Bolsheviks and Germans re: Poland.

Entente/Swedish relations

Publication of Agreement between Entente and Sweden.

Russia: End of the Russian Black Sea Fleet

The Russians were quickly running out of ports to house their Black Sea Fleet. The Germans had taken the entirety of the Ukraine, and were pushing beyond towards the Caucasus, while Georgia had declared independence (twice) and was now under German protection. The fleet had escaped Sevastopol for Novorossiysk at the beginning of May, but this was the last harbor available to them. In June, the Germans, who were within reach of the city, demanded that the Russians hand over their fleet. Moscow ordered the fleet to scuttle itself instead. The dreadnought SVOBODNAYA ROSSIIA (Free Russia; formerly the IMPERATRITSA EKATERINA VELIKAYA ) was sunk by torpedoes from a destroyer on June 18; the majority of the remaining fleet followed suit over the next day. Some ships, however, chose not to follow the order after votes from the sailors on board; the dreadnought VOLYA (Freedom; formerly IMPERATOR ALEKSANDR III) and three destroyers instead returned to Sevastopol where there were interned and eventually seized by the Germans. The Germans were never able to make use of their new dreadnought before the end of the war, however.

Aerial operations: Lights out all over

Today, the New York Times announced that the blackout that had covered New York for the last two weeks had been rescinded and that as of yesterday, all police precincts have been ordered to:

“Resume normal lighting throughout the city until further orders”

New York City had been in darkness since 4 June. On 5 June the New York Times reported on the scene:

“Electric signs and all lights, except street lamps and lights in dwellings, were out in this city last night in compliance with orders issued by Police Commissioner Enright at the suggestion of the War Department, as a precaution against a possible attack by aircraft from a German submarine. A system for signalling by sirens in case the approach of aircraft should be detected was devised by the police and signal officers yesterday to warn persons to get under cover.”

No one wanted to take responsibility for the decision but it was likely taken in light of the arrival of the German uboat U-151 which was operating off the US coast in May and June 1918 and had sunk 9 ships between 25 May and 2 June.

However, it’s unclear how this extended to the possibility of German aircraft bombing American cities. There was no known submarine that could also carry aircraft at the time, but an article in the Washington Post on 2 June 1918 makes some fantastical claims that Germany has hydroairplanes that can stored in the submarine and assembled at sea.

That said it’s not entirely clear if this is an actual belief or an attempt to drum up support for the war effort by winding up fears of German “frightfulness”.

Naval operations: ship losses

No. 11 (Imperial Russian Navy) The torpedo boat was scuttled at Novorossiysk.

DWINSK (United Kingdom) The ocean liner was torpedoed and sunk in the Atlantic Ocean 400 nautical miles (740 km) north east of Bermuda by SM U-151 ( Kaiserliche Marine) with the loss of 22 lives. Survivors were rescued by USS RONDO, USS SIBONEY and USS VON STEUBEN (all United States Navy).

FIDONSI (Imperial Russian Navy) The KERCH-class destroyer was scuttled at Sevastopol.

GROMSKI (Imperial Russian Navy) The GROMKI-class destroyer was scuttled at Sevastopol.

KAPITAM-LEITENANT BARANOV (Imperial Russian Navy) The LEITENANT SHESTAKOV-class destroyer was scuttled at Sevastopol.

KERCH (Imperial Russian Navy) The KERCH-class destroyer was scuttled at Sevastopol.

LEITENANT SHESTAKOV (Imperial Russian Navy) The LEITENANT SHESTAKOV-class destroyer was scuttled at Sevastopol.

NORFOLK COAST (United Kingdom) The coaster was torpedoed and sunk in the North Sea 23 nautical miles (43 km) south east of Flamborough Head, Yorkshire (53°40′N 0°28′E) by SM UB-30 ( Kaiserliche Marine) with the loss of eight crew.

PRONZITELNY (Imperial Russian Navy) The GROMKI-class destroyer was scuttled at Sevastopol.

SMEYTIVI (Imperial Russian Navy) The PRUITKI-class destroyer was scuttled at Sevastopol.

STREMITELNI (Imperial Russian Navy) The PRUITKI-class destroyer was scuttled at Sevastopol.

SVOBODNAYA ROSSIIA (Imperial Russian Navy) The IMPERATRITSA MARIYA-class battleship was scuttled at Novorossiysk by Kerch (Imperial Russian Navy).

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Day 1411 of the Great War, June 19th 1918

Russian Civil War

Reported overthrow of Bolshevist Government in western Siberia.

Anti-Bolshevist Government set up at Nizhni-Udinsk (330 miles north-west of Lake Baikal).

Tomsk taken by Anti-Bolsheviks.

Italian Front: Italians Counterattack on the Piave

The Austrian advance from their bridgeheads had stalled after four days. In the meantime, the complete Austrian failure on the Asiago allowed the Italians to bring up enough reserves, using their good interior lines of transport, to launch a counterattack with ten divisions on June 19th. It was aimed at the Montello, a hill that formed the linchpin of the Austrians’ best bridgehead across the river. They heavily outnumbered the Austrians in both men and artillery, but the counterattack only made limited gains, most of which were reversed the next day. Nonetheless, the attack further exhausted the Austrians and depleted their supplies; one regiment ran out of bullets entirely and had to fend off attackers with bayonets and hand grenades for some time.

In addition to infantry reserves, the Allies were able to bring up artillery and airplanes as well. The latter were especially dangerous, soon establishing complete aerial dominance in the area and strafing Austrian troops, supply depots, and bridges with impunity; eighty percent of the Austrians’ bridges across the Piave were destroyed by Allied attacks.

Macedonian Front: French General Franchet d’Esperey Takes Command of Entente Forces in Greece

C.S. Forester wrote in his novel The General that the generals of the First World War were like “savages … accustomed only to nails,” who try to “extract a screw from a piece of wood … by main force,” never imagining there could be a better way. He meant that the brute force offensives on the Western Front betrayed a limited imagination to the generation of officers who commanded in the Great War.

Forester was uncharitable. That is evident by the way many generals who failed to break the deadlock on the Western Front revealed their talents when sent to other theaters of conflict. The French General Franchet d’Esperey arrived at the malarial backwater of the Salonika campaign in June 1918 to take command of the Allied forces there, a conglomerate of Greeks, French, British, and Serbs. D’Esperey had been blamed for enormous losses to French troops during the offensives of 1917 and early 1918 on the Western Front. Once in Salonika, however, he displayed enormous skill re-organizing the theater and was responsible for the eventual triumph of Allied arms at Vardar in October 1918. Much like his British counterpart Edmund Allenby sent to command in Palestine, when generals like D’Esperey who failed on the Western Front went elsewhere, they proved more than able to succeed. Casualties were enormous on the Western Front not because the generals were dullards, but because there simply was nothing to use but “brute force.”

Naval operations: ship losses

British squadron in north of Heligoland Bight attacked by German seaplanes. One German seaplane destroyed.

Finland

Decision re: Finnish Monarchy postponed till 1920.

United Kingdom

Report of British Sub-Committee of Re-construction Committee re: increase of home-grown food.

Switzerland

Swiss Government adopts project of subvention of port at Basle.

Aerial operations: Prancing Stallion

Out on the Italian front the RAF are continuing to assist the Italians to fight off an Austrian offensive with ground attacks. Lieutenant Stirling Mansfield Robins from 28 Squadron RAF was hit by ground fire in his Sopwith Camel (B9310), forced to land and taken prisoner. Meanwhile his colleague Clifford MacKay McEwen claimed his 15th and 16th victories in his Camel (D8112) by shooting down two Berg D1s.

However, the big story of the day was the loss of the Italian’s leading ace (34 victories) Count Francesco Baracca, was killed flying ground attack missions in the Montello area. According to one story Baracca and his wingman Tenente Franco Osnago were hit by ground fire. In another Baracca had climbed to provide top cover for Osnago to carry out a ground attack but was hit by ground fire.

A few days later, on 24 June, Baracca’s remains were recovered from where they lay, four meters from the burnt remnants of his aircraft. His body showed a bullet to the head. His pistol was out of its holster, but away from his body, leading to suspicions that he had shot himself rather than die in a crash or be taken prisoner.

However, later evidence, suppressed at the time indicates that it is more likely he was shot down by Leutnant Arnold Barwig, the observer in an Austrian Phönix C.I (121.17), piloted by Max Kauer. The Austrian crew also photographed the shot-down aeroplane and noted the time and place of engagement.

His aircraft were recognisable by the “prancing stallion” painted on the side. This may seem familiar and indeed it is. It was presented by his mother to Enzo Ferrari in 1929 and has been used on Ferrari cars ever since.

Photo: Francesco Baracca posing by his SPAD S.XIII. Latest possible photo date is June 1918 (date of death)



Naval operations: ship losses

Non reported on this day.

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Day 1411 of the Great War, June 20th 1918

Italian Front: Austrians Call Off Piave Offensive

After five days, the Austrian offensive had captured several bridgeheads across the Piave, but had failed to break the Italians. They had suffered over 100,000 casualties, and with their river crossings constantly under attack from Allied planes and artillery, many of the wounded could not be evacuated back across the river. Italian counterattacks had been held off so far, but that was no guarantee that would hold. It was clear that the Austrians would make no further forward progress, but there was considerable debate as to how to proceed. Many generals wanted to dig in and prepare for another offensive, launching from the Montello bridgehead. Boroević recognized the Montello’s tactical value, knew that it held no value if they would never launch another offensive anyway. It would also take a significant commitment of troops they did not have to fully secure the Montello from Italian counterattack. On June 20, Boroević cabled Chief of Staff Arz and Emperor Charles: “As the Monarchy…has loyally fulfilled its duties as an ally…and cannot face the risk of remaining…I propose to withdraw…behind the Piave.”

Emperor Charles’ other commanders largely concurred with Boroević’s assessment; Arz informed him that another attack would not be possible for at least a month, and in the meantime they would have to hold off Italian counterattacks. The Germans also implicitly weighed in, asking for six Austrian divisions for service in France. That evening, Emperor Charles ordered a withdrawal back across the Piave. The Austrians would not attack Italy again.

East Africa campaign

Appointment of General Northey as Governor and Commander-in-Chief of East African Protectorate and High Commissioner for Zanzibar Protectorate.

Occupied Enemy Territory Administration (Palestine)

Re-establishment of Civil Law Courts in occupied territory of Palestine.

United Kingdom

Publication of Lord Grey's "League of Nations"; Report of Shipping Committee; Speech of Lord Curzon re: Ireland; Speech of Mr. Balfour re: peace; Reception of Sir M. De Bunsen's Mission by President of Chile.

Austria-Hungary

Food riots in Vienna.

Netherlands

Refusal of passport to M. Troelstra (Dutch Socialist leader) to visit England.

Aerial operations: France

Photo: A French Letord bomber, serial number L7 No. 297, at the Villacoublay aerodrome, 20 June 1918



Naval operations: ship losses

SM UC-64 (Kaiserliche Marine) The Type UC II submarine struck a mine and sank in the Strait of Dover (50°58′N 1°23′W) with the loss of all 30 crew.

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Day 1412 of the Great War, June 21st 1918

YouTube (Second Battle of the Piave River)



Italian Front: Austria-Hungary retreats across the Piave

Austro-Hungarian forces have crossed the Piave river. They hoped to deal a crushing blow to the Italians but were unable to break out of their bridgeheads. The Austro-Hungarians had hoped to reinforce their men from the Asiago plateau and then renew the offensive, but Italian pressure there has made that impossible.

After a strong Italian counter-attack threatened to overrun the bridgeheads, the Austro-Hungarians bowed to the inevitable: Emperor Karl has ordered a withdrawal to the east bank of the Piave. Now Austro-Hungarian troops are retreating across the river, largely unmolested by the Italians who are themselves also exhausted by this round of fighting.

Russia

Captain A.M. Shchastnyi, commander of naval forces in the Baltic Sea and chief architect of the Ice March of the Baltic Fleet, is executed in Moscow, following a dispute with Trotsky.

Austria-Hungary

Food crisis in Vienna eased.

United Kingdom: British Drop Plans for Conscription in Ireland

Two months after Lloyd George announced his plan to enact both conscription and Home Rule in Ireland, it was clear that the plan had failed. Almost every segment of Irish society, from its politicians to its churchmen, had rejected conscription, and saw the offer of Home Rule for the tactic it was. Irish republican nationalists had been emboldened by the effort, and Sinn Féin had won two by-elections in the last month. The German offensives that had driven far into British lines in March and April had passed, and their attacks on the French had stalled as well. The necessity for conscription in Ireland was also fading as more American soldiers crossed the Atlantic every week. On June 21, Lloyd George abandoned the dual effort for conscription and Home Rule. Subtler efforts to encourage Irish participation for the war effort continued, including a plan to appeal to Irish Catholic leaders to encourage men to join the French army to help defend their fellow Catholics on the continent.

Aerial operations: 85 Squadron at St Omer

This photo below shows a line of SE5a aircraft at St Omer Aerodrome. They belonged to 85 Squadron RAF and were photographed on the day the new commanding officer Major Edward “Mick” Mannock was appointed.

The serial numbers shown on the planes are from the front: C1904, D6851, C1931, B7870, C1928, C6486. By the beginning of August C6486, C1928, C1931, B7870 had been wrecked in various crashes, though none due to enemy action. C1904 survived but was sent home as unfit for service.

Photo: Royal Aircraft Factory S.E.5a scouts of No. 85 Squadron on St. Omer aerodrome, 21 June 1918



Photo: The officers (including Major Mannock) and Royal Aircraft Factory S.E.5a scouts of No. 85 Squadron at St Omer aerodrome, 21 June 1918



Naval operations: ship losses

EGLANTINE (Norway) The sailing vessel was sunk in the North Sea by SM U-86 ( Kaiserliche Marine) with the loss of eight of her crew.

MONTEBELLO (United Kingdom) The cargo ship was torpedoed and sunk in the Atlantic Ocean 320 nautical miles (590 km) west of Ouessant, Finistère, France (47°05′N 12°45′W) by SM U-100 ( Kaiserliche Marine) with the loss of 41 crew.

USS SCHURZ (United States Navy) The BUSSARD-class cruiser was rammed and sunk in the Atlantic Ocean south west of the Cape Lookout Lightship ( United States Navy) by FLORIDA ( United States) with the loss of a crew member.

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Day 1413 of the Great War, June 22nd 1918

Western Front

Enemy attack on Bligny (Reims) repulsed.

Italian Front

Piave in flood; Austrian retreat across Piave begins.

Arab Revolt

Turkish attack at El Haza (northern Hejaz) repulsed.

Russian Civil War: Whites Resume Offensive in the Kuban

The Volunteer Army had successfully regrouped and recuperated after the Ice March of the late winter and Kornilov’s death in battle in April. On June 22, Denikin’s 9000-man force once again began attacking the Soviets, striking at a rail junction just south of the Don. Although Soviet forces in the larger Kuban and north Caucasus area outnumbered the Volunteer Army more than ten-to-one, the Whites had some distinct advantages. The Cossack population of the area had largely turned against the Soviets; many Kuban Cossacks joined the Volunteer Army, while the Don Cossacks under General Krasnov had recovered after Kaledin’s suicide and retaken Novocherkassk. The Germans had also entered the area, having occupied Rostov in early May, and were on friendly terms with Krasnov’s Cossacks. This cut off Soviet forces from the most direct routes to the rest of Russia, and in their first few weeks of operations in late June and early July, the Volunteer Army was able to cut off the rest as well; the Soviets in the north Caucasus would be on their own until after the armistice.

Naval operations: ship losses

AVANCE (Sweden) The cargo ship was sunk in the North Sea off Flamborough Head, Yorkshire, United Kingdom (54°13′N 0°08′W) by SM UB-88 ( Kaiserliche Marine).[87] One crew member died.

USS CALIFORNIAN (United States Navy) The cargo ship struck a mine and sank in the Bay of Biscay. Her crew were rescued by USS CORSAIR ( United States Navy).

CAMP BOULHANT (France) The four-masted schooner was driven ashore and wrecked. Her crew survived.

CHILLIER (Belgium) The cargo ship was captured by, and sunk by gunfire from, U-151 ( Kaiserliche Marine) in the Atlantic Ocean off Newfoundland (39°30′N 53°40′W).

METAMORPHOSIS (Greece) The schooner was scuttled in the Mediterranean Sea south of Syracuse, Sicily, Italy (37°14′N 16°17′W) by SM UC-52 ( Kaiserliche Marine).

RANA (Norway) The sailing vessel was sunk in the Skaggerak 25 nautical miles (46 km) south west by south of Ryvingen, Rogaland (57°12′N 6°36′E) by SM U-111 ( Kaiserliche Marine). Her crew survived.

RHEA (United Kingdom) The cargo ship struck a mine laid by UC 49 (Hans Kükenthal) and sank in the English Channel off Étaples, Pas-de-Calais. Her crew survived.

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Day 1414 of the Great War, June 23rd 1918

Western Front

British line on Lys front advanced south-west of Meteren.

Italian Front: Austrians Retreat Across the Piave

At the recommendation of his generals, Emperor Charles had ordered a retreat across the Piave late on June 20, and the order went out the next day. Actually accomplishing this task would be quite difficult, however; the bridges thrown up across the Piave were under constant Allied artillery and aerial attack; around 80% of the pontoon bridges had been broken in the last week. All of June 22, the Austrian engineers did what they could to shore up the bridges and, failing that, prepare ferries. Once dark fell that night, Austrian logistical units began crossing the river, while most of the infantry left the front lines, leaving a thin screen to give the appearance that the trenches were still manned. The artillery and infantry followed the logistical units in the wee hours of June 23, and most of the Austrians were back across the river by dawn. Apart from some bombardment, the Italians did not interfere with the retreat, or attempt to follow the Austrians across the river. Diaz knew he had won a great victory on the Piave simply by stopping the Austrians, and had no desire to throw his soldiers’ lives away in a vast counteroffensive, as Cadorna likely would have done.

Photo: 12th Battalion Royal Scots on daylight reconnaissance patrol at Meteren, 23 June 1918



Photo: 12th Battalion Royal Scots manning the lip of a mine crater at Meteren, 23 June 1918



Austria-Hungary

Resignation of von Seidler (Austrian Premier).

United Kingdom/United States relations

Anglo-American Union proposed by Lord Reading.

Naval operations: ship losses

AUGVALD (Norway) The cargo ship was sunk in the Atlantic Ocean by SM U-151 ( Kaiserliche Marine) with the loss of three of her crew.

LONDON (United Kingdom) The cargo ship was torpedoed and sunk in the North Sea 4 nautical miles (7.4 km) north east of Whitby, Yorkshire by SM UB-88 ( Kaiserliche Marine). Her crew survived.

MOUNTAIN LAUREL (Norway) The sailing vessel was sunk in the Atlantic Ocean 25 nautical miles (46 km) north west of Rathlin Island, County Antrim, United Kingdom (55°38′N 6°38′W) by SM UB-73 ( Kaiserliche Marine) with the loss of eleven of her crew.

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Day 1415 of the Great War, June 24th 1918

Italian Front

Right bank of Piave cleared of Austrians; Italians attack Austrians north-west of M. Grappa without much success. Further 8,000 prisoners.

United Kingdom

Speeches of Mr. Lloyd George in House of Commons and of von Kuhlmann, on the situation.

Austria-Hungary

Emperor Charles refuses resignation of von Seidler.

Germany: German Foreign Minister Calls for Peace Talks

After four large-scale offensives on the Western Front (and a fifth in Italy), the Central Powers had made the largest gains of the war in the west since 1914. However, they seemed no closer to victory there; Ypres, Amiens, and Rheims were all still in Allied hands, and the last drive towards Paris had ended in almost complete failure. Recognizing this, in a speech in the Reichstag on June 24, German Foreign Minister Kühlmann acknowledged that “an absolute end through pure military decisions alone without any diplomatic negotiations could scarcely be expected,” and called for peace talks. Germany’s armies, though weakened by the losses in the spring offensives, were still formidable, and the Central Powers had a great bargaining position, occupying most of Belgium, as well as large parts of northern France and Italy (not to mention their gains in the East).

However, the speech was soon attacked by conservatives in the Reichstag, who saw anything less than the promise of total military victory as conceding defeat. Hindenburg & Ludendorff (although they had privately approved a memo urging negotiations themselves) soon joined in on the attacks, saying that “the speech has had a shattering effect upon the army.” Hindenburg & Ludendorff had long disliked Kühlmann, especially after the Brest-Litovsk negotiations. In early July, Hindenburg & Ludendorff strong-armed the Chancellor and the Kaiser into sacking Kühlmann; he was replaced by a conservative friend of the Kaiser, Admiral Paul von Hintze.

Ireland

Appeal of Irish Recruiting Council: Irish overseas aghast at inaction in Ireland.

Aerial operations: United Kingdom

The Royal Air Force employs its new 1,650-lb (748-kg) bomb in combat for the first time when a Handley Page O/400 of No. 216 Squadron drops one on Middelkerke, Belgium.

Aerial operations: North Russia

British Forces began to arrive in Murmansk, Russia by ship as part the Syren Force of the North Russian Expeditionary Force. Amongst them is a flight of DH4s, their crews and support staff so that the RAF can provide reconnaissance and bombing support.

The purpose of the expedition was threefold:

- prevent Allied war materiel stockpiled in Arkhangelsk from falling into German or Bolshevik hands.
- to mount an offensive to rescue the anti-bolshevik Czechoslovak Legion.
- to assist White Russian forces to defeat the bolsheviks.

Naval operations: ship losses

CAROLINE (Denmark) The three-masted schooner was sunk in the Atlantic Ocean north west of Ireland (56°39′N 10°01′W) by SM U-102 ( Kaiserliche Marine). Her crew survived.

HMS D6 (Royal Navy) The D-class submarine was sunk in the Atlantic Ocean 12 nautical miles (22 km) north of Inishtrahull Island, County Donegal (55°37′N 7°15′W) by SM UB-73 ( Kaiserliche Marine) with the loss of 24 of her 26 crew. Both survivors were rescued by SM UB-73.

MARRIA (Greece) The sailing vessel was sunk in the Mediterranean Sea south of Syracuse, Sicily, Italy by SM UC-52 ( Kaiserliche Marine).

SAINT ANTOINE (France) The schooner was sunk in the Mediterranean Sea 15 nautical miles (28 km) off Mahdia, Tunisia by SM UB-68 ( Kaiserliche Marine). Her crew survived.

SOPHIA (Italy) The sailing vessel was sunk in the Mediterranean Sea south of Syracuse by SM UC-52 ( Kaiserliche Marine).

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Day 1416 of the Great War, June 25th 1918

Western Front: Marines Capture Belleau Wood

The battle for Belleau Wood had raged for nearly three weeks; after multiple attacks and counterattacks, the Americans had secured large parts of the wood, but German resistance continued. The Marines who had begun the assault had been relieved on June 16th, but came back six days later to finish the job. However, an attack on the 23rd was repulsed with heavy casualties, and the French were convinced to provide overwhelming artillery support. At 3AM on the 25th, the French began a 14-hour bombardment of the woods, after which the Marines were able to capture the remaining German machine gun posts. The next day, the Americans were able to report: “Woods now entirely US Marine Corps.” Over the twenty-day battle, more than half the Marines engaged were killed or wounded.

Map: Map showing location of Marine push to secure Belleau Wood June 25, 1918



Italian Front

Italians take bridgehead of Capo Sile.

Ukrainian War of Independence

M. Markiewicz (Socialist) forms cabinet in Ukraine, vice M. Lyshub resigned.

Germany establishes the Crimean Regional Government to administer the occupied Crimean Peninsula.

Germany

German Foreign Secretary von Kühlmann makes a speech admitting the war cannot be won with force alone and Germany must resort to diplomacy. The speech angers the German military and other militarists.

United States: Pershing Demands Three Million Americans in France by 1919

American troops were involved in one of their first pitched battles in June 1918 as they struggled at Belleau Wood, where the Marine Brigade had taken a foothold in a German stronghold. This American force, however, was only the spearhead of a much larger planned deployment. On the Western Front three million Allied soldier faced three-and-a-half million Germans; American reinforcements were still needed to tip the scale in the Allies’ favor.

Pershing hoped to bring more men to France as quickly as possible. in June he wrote to President Wilson’s confidant Colonel House, urging rapid action. “The Allies are done for,” warned Pershing, “and the only them (especially France) in the war will be the assurance that we have enough force to assume the initiative.” To have that, Pershing demanded a doubling of Allied strength by expanding the 800,000 strong American army to three million in sixty-six divisions: “the least that should be through of.” He wanted them ready by 1919, which Allied leaders believed would be the decisive year of the war.

Aerial operations: Independence day

The Independent Force seems now to have got into the swing of things with increasing activity over the last few days, despte the relativley poor weather and high winds. Today the Air Ministry reported that:

“Attacks were successfully carried out against the railway sidings and factories at Saarbrücken, the engine sheds and barracks at Offenburg and the explosives factory works and railway station at Karlsruhe. Many direct hits were observed on the engine sheds at Offenburg, and also on the barracks. At Karlsruhe two direct hits were observed on the engine sheds and on the Metallurgique works, causing a large explosion. This is confirmed by photographs. The factories and station at Saarbrücken were damaged.“

These attacks involved three day bombing squadrons, 55 Squadron RAF attacked Saarbrücken, 99 Squadron RAF Offenberg and 104 Squadron RAF Karlsruhe. All three met significant opposition.

2nd Lieutenant George Arscott Sweet and 2nd Lieutenant Charles Frederick Richards Goodyear from 55 Squadron were both killed when their DH4 (B7866) crashed during the bombing of Saarbrücken, most likely after being hit by ground fire.

Lieutenant Norman Stuart Harper and 2nd Lieutenant Donald Good Benson from 99 Squadron were shot down and killed. They were last seen being pursued by several enemy aircraft.

Lieutenant Hugh Sanders and 2nd Lieutenant William Walter Lloyd Jenkin from 99 Squadron were also shot up on the bomb raid on Offenburg in their DH4. Jenkin was badly wounded and later died.

At Karlsruhe, Lieutenant Frank Waring Mundy and 2nd Lieutenant Hugh Arthur Bruce Jackson were shot up in their DH9 (C6260) as were Lieutenant Anthony William Robertson and Lieutenant Montague Henry Cole in DH9 D1675. Mundy, Jackson and Robertson were all wounded. The Official History (Volume 6, page 139) notes that one of these pilots was badly wounded in the arm but still managed to return. Sadly it does not name the pilot. Jackson subsequently died of his wounds.

Lieutenant Charles Mathew Pontin and 2nd Lieutenant James Arnold also from 104 Squadron were forced down behind enemy lines in their DH9 (C2170) with engine trouble possibly caused by enemy fire. Both were taken prisoner.

Naval operations: ship losses

AFRICAN TRANSPORT (United Kingdom) The cargo ship was torpedoed and sunk in the North Sea 3 nautical miles (5.6 km) north of Whitby, Yorkshire by SM UB-88 ( Kaiserliche Marine) with the loss of three of her crew.

MOORLANDS (United Kingdom) The cargo ship was torpedoed and sunk in the North Sea 3 nautical miles (5.6 km) south east of Whitby by SM UB-88 ( Kaiserliche Marine) with the loss of ten of her crew.

ORISSA (United Kingdom) The passenger ship was torpedoed and sunk in the Atlantic Ocean 21 nautical miles (39 km) south west by west of Skerryvore by SM UB-73 ( Kaiserliche Marine) with the loss of six lives.

SMS T59 (Kaiserliche Marine) The torpedo boat collided with another vessel and sank in the Baltic Sea with the loss of 21 of her crew.

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Day 1417 of the Great War, June 26th 1918

Western Front

British take point west of Vieux Berquin (10.5 miles west of Armentieres).

American soldiers win the Battle of Belleau Wood, clearing the forest of German forces. Major Shearer reports: “Woods now U.S. Marine Corps entirely.”

Germany/Finland relations

Peace Treaty between Germany and Finland ratified.

United Kingdom

Labour Conference in London.

House of Lords approves principle of League of Nations.

Georgia

Kyrion II of Georgia, the head of the Georgian Orthodox Church, is murdered at his residence. The perpetrator and motive are unknown.

Aerial operations: France

German air-raid on Paris.

Naval operations: Australian Ship Sunk Off New Zealand by German Mine

The Pacific had largely been safe for Allied shipping since the SMS DRESDEN was scuttled in March 1915. With the Pacific safe, the Allies were able to divert resources elsewhere; even the Japanese had sent a squadron to the Mediterranean. The sole exception was the voyage of the commerce Raider WOLF, which on a fifteen-month cruise from late 1916 to early 1918 had attacked Allied shipping in the Atlantic, Indian, and Pacific Oceans. By June 1918, she had been back in Europe for months, and it was hoped that most of the mines she laid had been swept up or destroyed; no ships had been lost to her since January 4th. This hope proved unfounded at 5:15 AM on June 26, when the Australian passenger steamship WIMMERA struck one of the WOLF’S mines just off the north coast of New Zealand.

The ship’s electricity quickly went out, making the evacuation difficult. When the ship sank half an hour later, 26 people were killed, including the captain and two other senior officers. The ship was not able to send out a distress message, but the lifeboats were able to reach land through relatively calm waters. They were aided upon landfall by local Māori, who were able to help them get a message to send ships to pick up the survivors from the other boats. According to one survivor, however, the survivors were initially mistaken for Germans, though the misunderstanding was soon sorted out.

Naval operations: Canadian Hospital Ship HMHS LLANDOVRY CASTLE Sunk and Survivors Massacred

While sailing from Nova Scotia to Liverpool the hospital ship HMHS LLANDOVRY CASTLE was torpedoed by a submerged U-Boat on June 27, 1918. The ship carried 600 beds for wounded troops, but fortunately was returning to take more casualties onboard instead of fully loaded. Nevertheless, her destruction was one of the war’s worst atrocities.

Sinking a hospital ship was against both the laws of war and the code of the German Navy. After torpedoing Llandovery Castle, the U-boat U-86 surfaced to try and destroy the evidence of the sinking The German sailors began firing on survivors in the water, and then the U-boat itself ran down and rammed all but one of the lifeboats.

One lifeboat, carrying 14 of the 97 nursing sisters onboard, was sucked into the whirlpool creating by the sinking ship. Only one Canadian soldier onboard it survived by clinging onto wreckage. Later he vividly remembered the nurses’ last moments:

“Unflinchingly and calmly, as steady and collected as if on parade, without a complaint or a single sign of emotion, our fourteen devoted nursing sisters faced the terrible ordeal of certain death–only a matter of minutes–as our lifeboat neared that mad whirlpool of waters where all human power was helpless. I estimate we were together in the boat about eight minutes. In that whole time I did not hear a complaint or murmur from one of the sisters. There was not a cry for help or any outward evidence of fear. In the entire time I overheard only one remark when the matron, Nursing Matron Margaret Marjory Fraser, turned to me as we drifted helplessly towards the stern of the ship and asked: "Sergeant, do you think there is any hope for us?” “I replied, ‘No.”

Then the nurses were sucked into the whirlpool. They died along with 234 other nurses, doctors, soldiers, and seamen. Only 24 survived. The officers commanding the submarine were prosecuted for war crimes after the war, but escaped conviction by fleeing the country

Naval operations: ship losses

HMT ACHILLES II (Royal Navy) The naval trawler struck a mine laid by UC 4 (Eberhard Schmidt) and sank in the North Sea off the Shipwash Lightship ( United Kingdom) (52°04′30″N 1°48′00″E) with the loss of thirteen of her crew.

ATLANTIAN (United Kingdom) The passenger ship was torpedoed and sunk in the Atlantic Ocean 110 nautical miles (200 km) north west by west of Eagle Island, County Mayo (55°42′N 12°57′W) by SM U-86 ( Kaiserliche Marine). Her crew survived, but two of them were taken as prisoners of war.

TORTUGUERO (United Kingdom) The cargo ship was torpedoed and sunk in the Atlantic Ocean 205 nautical miles (380 km) north west of Eagle Island (55°50′N 15°30′W) by SM U-156 ( Kaiserliche Marine) with the loss of twelve of her crew.

SM UC-11 (Kaiserliche Marine) The Type UC I submarine struck a mine and sank in the Strait of Dover (51°55′N 1°41′E) with the loss of eighteen of her nineteen crew.

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Day 1418 of the Great War, June 27th 1918

Russia

650 newly-elected members of Soviet enrolled.

Swedish/Finland/Germany relations

Agreement between Sweden, Finland and Germany for abolition of forts on Aaland Islands.

Italy

Yugo-Slav deputation at Rome.

Aerial operations: France

German bombers conduct an air raid against Paris, resulting in 11 deaths and 14 injuries.

Aerial operations: Strike

A succession of minor strikes and stoppages took place in various factories in the aircraft industry during the early part of 1918 causing disruption to production. A lot of this was caused by the rapid expansion of the industry which was accompanied by a lack of experienced managers both due to the fact that the industry was relatively new and that many were of course serving in the armed forces.

However, today a major strike started in the Alliance Aeroplane Company (a company set up to fulfil government orders from other manufacturers such as de Havilland, Airco and Handley-Page) when 700 staff stopped work following the dismissal of a shop steward, who had held a meeting on the premises against the instructions of the management.

After negotiations between the Ministry of Munitions and the London Aircraft Committee, the latter recommended that the men resume work on 4 July on condition that arbitration should take place the following day. The workmen, however, refused to comply with the recommendation, and the trouble spread to other firms in the London area.

On 10 July, after prolonged negotiations between the Ministry and representatives of the strikers, the men agreed to return to work, on the understanding that the works of the Alliance Aeroplane Company would be taken over as a national factory and that the dismissed shop steward would be reinstated, pending the result of a Government enquiry into his case.

No doubt threatened with the loss of their business the company quickly came to a settlement with its employees, and agreed to recognise shop stewards elected by the workpeople, on condition works rules were observed, and agreed to the election of a committee of shop stewards to act as the recognised channel for negotiations. This was approved by the Ministry

Naval operations: ship losses

KEELUNG (United Kingdom) The cargo ship was torpedoed and sunk in the Atlantic Ocean 110 nautical miles (200 km) west by south of Ouessant, Finistère, France by SM U-53 ( Kaiserliche Marine) with the loss of six crew.

HMHS LLANDOVERY Castle (Royal Navy) The hospital ship was torpedoed and sunk in the Atlantic Ocean 116 nautical miles (215 km) west of the Fastnet Rock by SM U-86 ( Kaiserliche Marine) with the loss of 234 of the 258 people on board.

SOTOLONGO (Spain) The cargo ship was sunk in the Mediterranean Sea 35 nautical miles (65 km) off Maritimo Island (38°04′N 11°21′E) by SM U-65 ( Kaiserliche Marine). Her crew survived.

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Day 1419 of the Great War, June 28th 1918

YouTube (The Run For The Baku Oil Fields)



Western Front

French capture Cutry Plateau.

British troops east of Nieppe Forest advance on a four-mile front, taking three towns from the Germans.

Arab Revolt

Arabs capture Kalaat el Almar (200 miles north of Medina) from Turks.

United States

Second U.S.A. communique in favour of deliverance of all Slavs from German or Austro-Hungarian rule.

Germany: Kaiser Decides to Not “Liquidate” Bolsheviks

The Germans’ relationship with the Bolsheviks was a complicated one. They were glad the Bolsheviks had exited the war, even if it had taken another military campaign to get them to sign the peace treaty. On the other hand, their constant talk of revolution was dangerous, and the Army was worried they had “infected” returning PoWs with their propaganda. They were also worried that a resurgent Bolshevik-governed Russia might prove a threat in the future–and, more to the point, wanted Russia’s resources. The Germans had already pushed beyond the Ukraine into Rostov and elements were pushing into the Kuban beyond. Certain elements in the Army wanted to simply “liquidate” the Bolsheviks, replacing them with a government more amenable to them, as they had done in Ukraine.

The Foreign Office, on the other hand, sharply disagreed. The Bolsheviks had (eventually) signed the Treaty of Brest-Litovsk with them, and reneging on that would severely undermine German credibility in any future negotiations elsewhere. Furthermore, the majority of the anti-Bolshevik opposition (though not all) favored the Allies–this was especially true of the Czech Legion, the dominant threat in the summer of 1918.

Although the Kaiser was certainly sympathetic to the Army’s point of view, having argued that the Bolsheviks should be “beaten to death” in February, on June 28 he sided with the Foreign Office. Despite their disagreements with the Bolsheviks, they were to be reassured that neither the Germans nor the Finns would make any move on Petrograd. Lenin deeply distrusted the Germans, but even so eventually took the gamble that they were telling the truth; on August 10, he would divert Red Army forces that had been covering Petrograd east to fight the Czechs.

State of the War: Mid-1918

The tumult and upheaval of 1917 continued into 1918 as the war approached its climax. The Russians and Romanians had been forced into humiliating peace treaties, and Germany moved all of its reserves to the West in an attempt to win a final military decision there. They had made spectacular gains of the sort not seen in the West since 1914, but the Allies were holding firm and more Americans were arriving every week.

The Eastern Front and the Russian Civil War

Negotiations at Brest-Litovsk between the Bolsheviks and the Central Powers dragged on from December into February. In an attempt to further isolate the Bolsheviks, the Central Powers signed a treaty with the newly-formed Ukrainian Government in early February, making territorial concessions in Poland in exchange for food and economic concessions. The next day, Trotsky unilaterally declared an end to the war in the east and pulled out of negotiations. The Germans did not accept this, called off the armistice, and invaded Russia, meeting essentially zero resistance from the non-existent Russian Army. Thirteen days later, the Germans were in Narva, 85 miles of Petrograd, and the Russians signed the Treaty of Brest-Litovsk, exiting the war and giving up their claims to all the land the Central Powers had occupied.

The Germans moved many of their troops that had been in Russia to the Western Front, but not all. Many were still needed to occupy the lands Russia had given up, and the Central Powers’ advance even continued in the Ukraine, ostensibly in support of their new allies in Kiev. The socialists there proved disagreeable to the Germans, however, and they helped install a more friendly government under the self-styled Hetman Skoropadskyi in late April. In May, the Germans took Sevastopol and Rostov. The Russian Black Sea Fleet, quickly running out of safe harbors, variously scuttled itself or surrendered to the Germans in mid-June.

Russia’s exit stranded a variety of volunteer forces in the country. Polish forces were convinced to halt and then, after a brief but determined resistance, surrendered to the Germans. The Czech Legion was determined to make its way out of the country to fight on the Western Front, preferably via Vladivostok, but distrust between the Czechs and the Bolsheviks spiraled into open warfare in May. By the end of June, the Czechs had seized most of the Trans-Siberian Railroad east of the Volga, and had even helped install an rump portion of the Constituent Assembly as an anti-Bolshevik government Samara (the original having been dissolved after less than 24 hours in January).

White resistance also emerged on the Don and in the Kuban early in the year. They quickly suffered many setbacks, as the Bolsheviks crushed the Don Cossacks and sent Alexeyev’s and Kornilov’s Volunteer Army to wander the snows of the steppe. The Bolsheviks thought resistance to their rule was over when Kornilov was killed in an ill-advised attack in April. However, the Bolsheviks were undermined by their own heavy-handedness (and the arrival of the Germans) and by June the Don Cossacks had re-emerged and the Volunteer Army was once again on the offensive.

Finland’s independence from Russia was universally recognized at the beginning of the year, but it was soon wracked by its own internal divisions. The Finnish socialists, who had narrowly lost last October’s elections, seized control of much of the populated heart of Finland in late January. The remaining Whites attempted to fight off the Reds and appeal for foreign aid; the Swedes refused to intervene beyond the Ålands, but the Germans were more than happy to gain a grateful ally just outside Petrograd. The Germans landed at Hanko in early April, and within a month the Reds were defeated, their leadership having fled to Russia.

Romania took advantage of the Russian collapse to seize Bessarabia (modern-day Moldova); however, shortly after Brest-Litovsk, they too were forced to sign a harsh peace, giving up the Dobruja and major economic concessions. Most of the country would remain under German occupation until the end of the war.

The Western Front

Using the troops freed up by the effective end of the war in the East, Hindenburg & Ludendorff decided on a series of massive offensives in the West that they hoped would break the Allies. The first, Operation Michael, struck back into the ground fought over during the Battle of the Somme and then abandoned by the Germans in early 1917. Although it essentially broke the British Fifth Army and came very close to taking the key rail center of Amiens, it did not result in a great strategic victory for the Germans, instead extending their lines in an awkward direction.

Less than three weeks later, the Germans attacked again in Flanders, in Operation Georgette. Breaking through demoralized Portuguese forces, it took key positions to the south of Ypres and forced Plumer to abandon the ground gained at extremely high cost at Passchendaele the previous fall. However, Ypres remained in Allied hands, as did the approaches to the Channel ports.

The German attacks forced the Allies to finally agree to a unified command; French General Foch was made the generalissimo of the Allied armies, with overall control of the dispensation of their reserves. The Germans hoped these would be moved south and away from Flanders by an attack on the Aisne, which they launched in late May. The attack broke through French lines much more easily than expected, due to a lack of defense-in-depth, and the Germans were on the Marne within days. Paris was once again under threat, and had for several months been under shell from German long-range guns as well. The Germans shifted their attack yet again, striking near Noyon in early June with Operation Gneisenau, but this time the French were prepared and were able to halt the German advance within a few days.

The Americans had begun to arrive in force, and launched their first attack of the war in late May, taking the town of Cantigny in an attack planned by Lt. Col. George C. Marshall. This was soon overshadowed by events on the Marne, where American troops were quickly thrown into action to stop the German advance. In June, the US Marines fought a three-week battle to retake Belleau Wood, at the cost of over half of their men in casualties. Also entering action in the spring of 1918 was the 369th US Infantry Regiment, now commonly known as the Harlem Hellfighters; due to American racism, they were placed under French command.

Italy and the Balkans

To support the Germans’ large-scale efforts on the Western Front, the Austrians launched their own offensive against Italy in mid-June. Divided between attacks on the Asiago plateau and across the Piave, the Austrians quickly ran into determined resistance from an Italian foe that had had months to prepare, had been reinforced by the French and British, and under the command of a new general, Diaz, who was determined not to make the same mistakes Cadorna had made. The Austrians gained a few bridgeheads at great cost, but had immense difficulties in supplying them under attack from Allied airplanes and artillery. After little over a week, the Austrians called off the offensive and retreated behind the Piave, having lost over 100,000 men for no gain.

The front around Salonika remained relatively quiet in 1918, as both sides turned their attention to the Western Front. The Greeks gained their first notable victory of the war in late May, capturing the Skra di Legen. French general Franchet d’Esperey assumed overall command here in early June, having been forced to take the fall for the French defeat on the Aisne.

The Middle East

The British attempted two forays across the Jordan towards Amman, while their Hashemite allies attempted attacks further south; all were defeated. The crisis on the Western Front and the start of summer forced the Allies to call off major operations in Palestine.

In the Caucasus, in February the Turks began to reoccupy the territory they had lost to the Russians, followed by the lands they were awarded in the Treaty of Brest-Litovsk. The newly-independent Transcaucasian Federation, however, did not recognize the treaty, and after a miscommunication regarding the terms of a Turkish ultimatum, went to war with Turkey in April. The Turkish advance into Armenia was stopped at Sardarabad in late May, but Georgia remained under threat. Transcaucasia was also wracked by internal divisions; ethnic violence between Azeris and Armenians broke out in Baku in late March (with some help from the Bolsheviks). In late May, Georgia declared independence and accepted protection from the Germans; this led to an embarrassing episode where the Turks attacked a German unit in Georgia. The Turks were thus forced to halt their advance, but they still had their aim set to the east, occupying Tabriz and aiming for Baku.

It was precisely this outcome that the British hoped to prevent; an attack north from Baghdad to Kirkuk briefly occupied the city, but failed to divert the Turks from the Caucasus. They also created the so-called “Dunsterforce” to help organize resistance to the Turkish advance, but by the end of June it had yet to make an appearance beyond northern Persia.

Africa

Lettow-Vorbeck’s forces continued to pillage though Portuguese Mozambique, splitting up to cover more ground. On one occasion in late May one of his columns was nearly trapped by the British, but they managed to escape despite losing their whole baggage train. At the end of June, his forces were approaching the major port city of Quelimane.

The War at Sea

The High Seas Fleet sortied one final time in April an attempt to attack a Norway-bound convoy (that was not actually sailing that day). The British missed the signs that the Germans had sortied, and left their ports too late to catch them, although a British submarine was able to inflict serious damage on a German battlecruiser.

German unrestricted submarine warfare continued, although convoys had diminished its effectiveness. They had managed to sink two American troop transports: one, the Tuscania, bound for France, and the other, the President Lincoln, on its return voyage. This author’s great-great-uncle was killed in the latter sinking. The British attempted to stop the submarines at their source by attacking the German-occupied ports at Zeebrugge and Ostend in April; although highly celebrated, the attacks ultimately failed to block the passage of U-boats for more than a few days.

The main Allied success in the first half of 1918 came in the Adriatic, where Italian fast torpedo boats managed to sink an Austrian dreadnought, the Szent István, in early June. Another creative Italian endeavor, an attempt to crawl into the Austrian harbor at Pola with a “naval tank,” failed.

Aerial operations: France

Another air-raid on Paris.

Aerial operations: New life

The Airco DH6 was originally designed as a military trainer in 1916. The design was crude, being purposely easy to manufacture and repair and having little in the way of refinement or streamlining. In terms of flying it was designed to be safe but deliberately unstable so that the pilot had to keep alert. By the end of 1917 it started to be phased out as a trainer and replaced by the Avro 504K, though many examples continued to serve as trainers and in other roles until the end of the war.

One of these new roles deserves mention. At the end of June 1918, the Air Ministry agreed to transfer 192 DH6s in 32 flights to the Admiralty for anti u-boat patrols in Home Waters (these were organised for administrative purposes into new Squadrons – including 244, 250, 251, 254, 255, 256, 258 and 260). The DH6 was not ideal for this purpose as they could not carry an observer as well as bombs. On the other hand they were easy to fly by pilots of all abilities, so those not good enough for the front could be used for this purpose.

At the same time it was these aircraft or nothing and the Admiralty was confident that the deterrent value of aircraft was sufficient. Experience had shown that most u-boat commanders tended to stay submerged when aircraft were above and that they also avoided areas that were heavily patrolled. The crude sighting equipment was unlikely to allow u-boat commanders to identify specific aircraft types while submerged.

The inherent instability of the trainer however proved tiring for pilots carrying out long patrols over the sea. A number of modifications including 10 inches of back-stagger to the top wing and narrower elevators and rudder were made to make the aircraft more stable.

The set up was pretty crude with rudimentary accommodation for most of the pilots. They were also chronically understaffed in both pilots and ground staff. Bombing was also hampered by a lack of armourers and storage facilities causing many bombs to fail to explode.

Nevertheless the units soldiered on providing a significant part of the anti-submarine patrol cover for the rest of the war. In the end the Admiralty view was proved to be correct. Shipping losses in areas patrolled by aircraft tended to be lower and when poor weather limited flying, shipping losses rose.

Naval operations: ship losses

DICTATOR (United Kingdom) The schooner was scuttled in the Atlantic Ocean by SM U-151 ( Kaiserliche Marine). Her crew survived and were taken as prisoners of war.

ELBJORG (Norway) The sailing vessel was sunk in the North Sea off the Tongue Lightship ( United Kingdom) (57°50′N 8°42′E) by SM UC-59 ( Kaiserliche Marine). Her crew survived.

POCHARD (United Kingdom) The trawler struck a mine laid by UC 58 (Kurt Schwarz) and sank in the North Sea 40 nautical miles (74 km) north east of the Spurn Lightship ( United Kingdom). Her crew survived.

QUEEN (United Kingdom) The cargo ship was torpedoed and sunk in the Atlantic Ocean 130 nautical miles (240 km) north of Cape Villano, Spain (44°25′N 10°25′W) by SM U-53 ( Kaiserliche Marine) with the loss of twenty crew.

SUNNIVA (United Kingdom) The cargo ship was torpedoed and sunk in the North Sea 4 nautical miles (7.4 km) east of Sunderland, County Durham by SM UC-17 ( Kaiserliche Marine) with the loss of two of her crew.